Family Roles Are Generally More Central to a Person's Identity:
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® Volume 9, Number ii
Towards a Model of Identity and Part Get out
by
Jason S. Milne
Longwood University
Introduction
Why do individuals exit a function? This question has both theoretical and practical implications. Ebaugh (1988) provides us with a model for understanding the process of leaving the function, and much has been written virtually how identities affect the performance of a role. But what has not been yet proposed is a theoretical construct for agreement how identities affect whether an individual will perform or exit a role.
This newspaper moves the literature toward a theoretical agreement of how identity processes affect part exit. I propose a model that takes into business relationship how factors specific to a specific role (role-set factors) and social characteristics impact office exit. The model also examines how identity processes might bear on how office-fix factors and social characteristics bear on whether or not a person exits the role. I so test this model using a sample of current and sometime soccer referees in the land of Virginia.
Literature Review
Near explanations of role exit are associated with one of two factors, function-set factors (factors associated with performing a specific role), or social characteristics (such every bit historic period, sex and marital status). These role-set factors measure aspects of the structure of a role of the cultural context in which the office occurs. Amid the role-ready factors, role disharmonize, or the inability to participate in 2 or more mutually sectional roles (Merton 1957), is i of the more significant factors in predicting role leave. Role disharmonize predicts role exit for volunteers and paid employees, among others (Hopkins et al. 2010; Martinez and McMullin 2004; Settles 2004). Other significant role prepare factors include organizational change (Schellenberg 1996; Pratt 2001), expectations associated with the role (Rindfuss, Cooksey, and Sutterlin 1999), initial doubts about the role (Ebaugh 1988), and the back up that an individual receives from others within the role (Magee 2003). Injuries and other critical events are the final function-ready factors that influence role exit. In the case of injuries, those who are injured are more likely to get out a role than those who are non (Shamian et al. 2003).
Amongst the social characteristics, historic period may preclude some individuals from participating in a role as for case when a company mandates a retirement age (Settersten and Mayer 1997). Sex activity has as well been shown to influence role leave, but this depends on the type or function and some of the characteristics of the person performing the role (Powell and Greenhaus 2010; Sicherman 1996). Finally, married individuals tend to exit paid roles at an earlier rate than non married individuals (Feldman 1994). But, married individuals are as well more likely to remain in not-paid roles longer than non-married individuals (Rotolo and Wilson 2004).
A multifariousness of identity-related factors also affect role exit. Much of the inquiry focuses on how possessing a role-identity may affect whether an individual will continue or abandon a office (Stets and Harrod 2004). Identities are constantly changing; therefore identity processes rather than components (which imply stability) are examined as to how they bear on whether an private volition retain or leave from the role identity. Support from significant individuals outside of the role such equally family and friends (Ebaugh 1988; McPhail and Kirk 2006) and the rewards that one receives from participating in the role (McCall and Simmons 1978) influences the memory of a function identity. Similarly, costs associated with performing the role such as money (Chinman and Wandersman 1999) or burnout (Drake and Yadama 1996) influences the abandonment of an identity.
The identity processes of social comparisons and reflective appraisals also touch whether an private will retain or abandon an identity. Individuals are probable to exit a part-identity if they compare themselves negatively confronting others who are participating in the role (Felson 1985). Similarly, reflected appraisals occur when the individual believes that others do not see him every bit performing the part adequately and then the individual is likely to exit the role identity (Helgeson and Mickelson 1995).
Commitment and identity centrality are the final ii identity processes that affect role leave. Two types of delivery affect role exit: interactional and affective commitment. Interactional commitment is the "extensivity (the number of persons besides every bit amount of time, free energy, and resources involved) of the social network to which one relates by virtue of having that identity," while affective commitment involves the emotional connections that an individual has with the identity (Ervin and Stryker 2001). Identity centrality refers to how important an private considers a office-identity to who they are as a person. The more than important the role-identity is to a person'southward sense of who they are, the more than likely the individual will continue in the function (Charng, Piliavin, and Callero 1988; Stryker and Serpe 1994).
Effigy 1
Model Specification
Figure i presents a model of how identities bear upon part get out. The model assumes that role-set factors and social characteristics significantly impact office go out. It likewise predicts that identity processes bear upon role get out and mediate or moderate the relationship between role prepare factors, social characteristics, and role exit. The model has three panels that connect the office-set factors and social characteristics to part exit while also accounting for identity processes. Role-set factors are specific to soccer referees and include league and assignor support/treatment, organizational modify, role conflict with the refereeing function, whether refereeing meets expectations, whether referees had initial doubts nigh refereeing, whether referees felt forced to referee, and whether referees had an injury. Social characteristics are gender, historic period, marital status of the referee, and how many children the referee has in a specific historic period group.
Panel 2 shows the identity processes of cerebral processes, rewards and costs, commitment, and identity salience. The cognitive processes include reflected appraisals, family back up for the part, and social comparisons (Ervin and Stryker 2001). Reflected appraisals assume that identities are reflexive; individuals come to know who they are as individuals from how they think others in the situation encounter them (Felson 1985). Social comparisons involve comparison their role performance over and against others in the situation (Festinger 1954). Rewards tin be intrinsic (refereeing is rewarding) or extrinsic (receiving a budgetary reward, being invited to a special tournament, and/or being named a good referee for the league). Costs include the perceived financial impact of refereeing, burnout from refereeing, and abuse from others directed toward the referee.
Commitment is measured through interactional and affective commitment. Interactional commitment is the "extensivity (the number of persons as well as amount of time, energy, and resources involved) of the social network to which one relates by virtue of having that identity" while affective commitment involves the emotional connections that an individual has with the identity (Ervin and Stryker 2001). Referees are committed if they have a friend or family member involved in the part, if they undergo a meaning amount of preparation, if they have a high grade level of the referee, and if they have been a referee for a significant length of time. Identity centrality refers to how of import individuals consider a role to their identity (Stryker & Serpe 1994).
Panel 3 is the event of role exit.
Hypotheses
- The role set factors and social characteristics significantly affect role leave.
- The identity processes of identity centrality, commitment, rewards/costs, and cerebral processes significantly affect role leave.
- The identity processes of identity centrality, commitment, rewards/costs, and cognitive processes mediate and/or moderate the effect that part set factors and social characteristics accept on function leave.
Current and sometime soccer referees from Virginia serve as the population for this research. I chose soccer referees for ii reasons. Beginning, this is a population that I accept access to. 2nd, data from the Virginia Soccer Referee database estimates that approximately 50% of all soccer referees exit the office within two years of initial certification. As such, this inquiry explores those factors that may help the Virginia Soccer Referee arrangement improve understand why individuals are leaving the function.
The survey samples referees certified for the year 2005 and those who did not recertify for 2003, 2004, or 2005 from the Republic of Virginia and the District of Columbia. Currently, there are nearly 5400 referees in the Virginia and Washington D.C. certified by the USSF. Referees range in age from xiii to 70.
I limited the sample of former referees to those who stopped refereeing within the last two years. Limiting the sample to two years ensured that contact data was accurate. Other than changes in their email address, well-nigh of the contact information should have been current. Limiting the sample to the last 2 years also ensured that individuals could amend recall their refereeing experience.
After receiving Institutional Review Lath permission, I synthetic an online survey so distributed this survey to a sample of soccer referees in Virginia. Of the v,283 emails sent out with the survey, 2,511 were returned with invalid email addresses (about 48% of all emails). Only two,772 emails were sent. Of those, 940 individuals responded. Therefore, of all emails initially sent out, 17.7% were returned completed. However, of those that actually went through to respondents' emails, 34% were returned completed.
The dependent variable asked whether or not an individual was currently certified equally a soccer referee. Those who answered no were coded as old referees while those currently certified were coded as current referees.
The contained variables include the role-set factors, social characteristics and identity procedure. Among the role-set factors, iv questions measured perceived league and assignor back up and handling. I created a calibration by calculation these ii variables into a general measure of league support and treatment. The second 2 measures tapped perceived treatment and support from the assignor. Similar the league support and handling variable, I created a scale of assignor support/handling. Two questions measured organizational change and role disharmonize, respectively. Questions regarding whether a referee has been injured, one's expectations regarding refereeing, and the doubts ane had nigh refereeing finalized the role-set factors. Additionally, the social characteristics of sex, age, marital status, and number of children were controlled in this written report.
Among the identity processes, the measure out of reflected appraisals was adapted from Felson'south (1985) measurement of whether children believe other children recollect they were attractive. Based upon these questions, I created a calibration that combined the appraisals into one variable. This appraisals variable has a Chronbach's blastoff of .80. The model controls for family unit support, social comparisons, perceptions of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards of refereeing, and the perceived financial impact of refereeing. I found that nearly 90% of all referees indicate that they had been physically abused. Since there was probable a trouble with the question, it was eliminated from further analysis. Thus, the final analysis just included verbal abuse.
Measures of burnout were adapted from Erickson and Ritter'southward (2001) scale: I combined each of these variables into one "exhaustion" calibration that captures the extent of burnout that the private associates with refereeing. The Chronbach's alpha for the calibration was .86. Commitment was measured as interactional commitment (Ervin and Stryker 2001) and measured by the form level of the referee (referee grades are one-8 with viii being entry level and one beingness a FIFA referee), the amount of training that a referee receives, years equally a referee, and whether a referee has a family fellow member who plays soccer. Finally, measures of identity centrality focused on the importance of refereeing to the private.
Results
Table 1
Logistic Regression Effects of Background Factors, Cerebral Processes, Rewards/Costs, Delivery, and Identity Centrality on Role Exit
| Model 1 Exp (B) | Model 2 Exp (B) | Model three Exp(B) | Model 4 Exp(B) | |
| Role Set Factors | ||||
| Role Conflict | one.70*** (.11) | one.67*** (.12) | one.75*** (.thirteen) | one.75*** (.13) |
| Assignor Treat- ment/Support | .74** (.10) | .78* (.xi) | .75* (.12) | .75* (.12) |
| League Treat- ment/Support | i.26* (.xi) | ane.21 (.12) | i.22 (.thirteen) | i.23 (.13) |
| Organizational Change | 1.39 (.18) | 1.26 (.nineteen) | one.18 (.xx) | ane.11 (.20) |
| Refereeing Meets Expectations | .86 (.16) | 1.03 (.17) | 1.02 (.xviii) | 1.02 (.18) |
| Initital Doubts most Refereeing | .92 (.11) | .90 (.12). | .95 (.13) | .95 (.13) |
| Forced to Referee | 1.14* (.15) | one.17 (.17) | 1.05 (.17) | i.00 (.17) |
| Injury (1=yes) | .65* (.15) | .68 (.22) | .78 (.23). | .76 (.23) |
| Social Characteristics | ||||
| Gender (1=female) | ane.09 (.26) | 1.15 (.28) | one.14 (.29) | one.06 (.30) |
| Age | .98** (.01) | .97** (.01) | .98 (01). | .98 (.01) |
| Marital Status (i=Married) | .72 (.25) | .69 (.26 | .seventy (.27) | .68 (.27) |
| Children Ages 0-half-dozen | .81 (.25) | .81 (.43) | .77 (.29) | .78 (.28) |
| Children Ages seven-12 | .61** (.19) | .55** (.xx) | .46** (.21) | .44*** (.22) |
| Children Ages 13-18 | .95 (.11) | .88 (.12) | .68** (.fourteen) | .68** (.xiv) |
| Identity Processes | ||||
| Reflected Appraisals | 1.00 (.25) | 1.14 (.27) | 1.05 (.28) | |
| Family unit Support for Referee | .91 (.sixteen) | .88 (.17) | .93 (.28) | |
| Social Comparisons | .89 (.16) | .90 (.17) | .96 (.23) | |
| Refereeing s Intrin- sically Rewarding | .89 (.18) | .98 (.19) | ane.19 (.twenty) | |
| Actress Financial Award (one=yes) | .96 (.30) | 1.06 (.32). | 1.15 (.35) | |
| Named Skillful Referee Reward (ane=aye) | .69 (.33) | .77 (1.08) | .74 (.35) | |
| Invitation to Tournament Award (1=yeah) | .81 (.23) | 1.08 (.25) | 1.15 (.26) | |
| Fiscal Cost of Refereeing | one.25 (.13) | 1.32 (.15) | 1.28 (.xv) | |
| Burnout | 1.14 (.12) | one.17 (.xiii) | 1.fifteen (.13) | |
| Exact Abuse (ane=yep) | .43** (.28) | .44** (.30) | .45** (.31) | |
| Refereeing Grade Level | ane.47 (.27) | 1.44 (.27) | ||
| Years Spent as Referee | .96 (.03) | .96 (.03) | ||
| Friends Met Through Refereeing | one.00 (.fourteen) | ane.08 (.58) | ||
| Family Soccer Player (1=yeah) | 2.32*** (.22) | ii.39*** (.23) | ||
| Amount of Training | .92*** (.02) | .93*** (.02) | ||
| Identity Centrality | .89** (.04) | |||
| Constant | .74 (.49) | 2.66 (.99) | 1.19 (i.06) | 1.38 (i.07) |
| N | 892 | 840 | 816 | 816 |
| Cox and Snell | .10 | .14 | .nineteen | .nineteen |
*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001 (one-tailed test).
Models 1 through iv of Table 1 presents logistic regression situating the dissimilar factors of the model on the role leave of soccer referees while likewise showing the mediating effect of various identity processes, commitment, and identity centrality on the model. Model one shows that the more organizational support, the less probable role exit will occur. Besides, referees with role conflict were more probable to quit refereeing than those who did non experience role disharmonize. These relationships are potent predictors of role exit even when controlling for the social psychological processes, rewards and costs, delivery, and identity centrality in Models 2-4. The more referees felt forced to get a referee, the greater likelihood of role get out. Finally, injuries significantly lower the likelihood of function exit.
Controlling for identity processes in Model 2 explains the outcome that being forced to become a referee and injuries have role exit. Historic period actually decreases the likelihood of office exit. But decision-making for commitment in Model 3 explained the relationship between age and whether referees quit.
Controlling for delivery and identity centrality actually made the effect of the number of children referees had between the ages of 7 and 12 more significant. But, the significance level did not change, implying that the social psychological processes did not explain whatever of the upshot that the number of children referees had between the ages of 7 and 12 had on role exit. All the same, when controlling for commitment and identity centrality, referees with children between the ages seven to 12, referees were nonetheless less likely to quit refereeing. Interestingly, each additional child a referee has between the ages of 13 to eighteen only became and sustained significant when controlling for commitment and identity axis.
Verbal abuse was reverse the hypothesized effect. Those who endured some form of verbal corruption were less probable to quit refereeing than those who had endured no verbal abuse.
Delivery is a significant predictor or role exit. Having a family member who played actually increased the likelihood of role exit, however, more than preparation decreased the likelihood of role go out. Finally, the more than important refereeing is to the person (identity axis), the less likely the person will exit the part.
The factors associated with the office of refereeing explained about 10% of the variation in role leave. Just, controlling for all the different the components of the model explained well-nigh 19% of the variation in part exit amongst soccer referees. In controlling for but the cognitive processes and rewards and costs the background factors explained an additional 4% of the variation (14% total) in role exit. In controlling for commitment as well as the cognitive processes and rewards and costs, the background factors explained an additional 5% of the variation in referee role exit (19%). Finally, controlling for identity axis explained no additional variation in referee role go out (19% full).
Discussion
Ebaugh'due south (1988) process of function go out provides an excellent offset framework for understanding the factors that explain role go out. This research continues in that tradition with a model of role exit. Role-prepare factors, some social characteristics, and identity factors practice significantly bear upon role exit. Too identity factors serve to mediate the relationship between the role fix factors, social characteristics and role exit.
Many of the conditions that Ebaugh (1988) and others identify equally factors predicting role go out are consequent with the role-ready factors, specific to soccer referees, that receive back up in this model. For example, the support that individuals receive from significant others affects function leave (Ebaugh 1988). This finding is contrary to organizational literature that suggests that organizational support helps retain employees (Wilson and Musick 1997). Notwithstanding, identity processes control for organization back up. Organizational support is less important for those who have an identity associated with the role.
Individuals who experience role conflict are more than probable to quit than those who do not experience function disharmonize; even for referees who consider the refereeing identity of import. Similarly, those who were forced into the role are more likely to exit the role than those who did not experience forced into the role. However, identity processes also controls for the event that being forced to participate in the office has on role leave. While role get out theory already takes into account social support, it should now consider the importance of the identity processes of rewards and costs associated with the role in the determining whether individuals will exit the role.
Despite the importance of injuries to predicting role get out, this effect goes away in one case the model controls for rewards and costs and cognitive processes. Over again, this points to the importance of the identity variables to predicting role get out. People can be injured, merely if the person has an identity associated with the role, then having an injury will non touch on role go out.
In terms of the social characteristics age and number of children significantly affect role exit. Historic period is similar to the influence that injuries accept on role get out. Older individuals do eventually quit refereeing. Just, the findings reveal that younger individuals quit more. Younger individuals modify roles more than older individuals, who tend to be more established in their careers and activities (Oesterle, Johnson, and Mortimer 2004). For younger individuals, shifting between multiple roles is a search for identity. Trying out many unlike roles allows younger individuals to explore what identity(south) most suits them.
The context of the function may explain how age affects role leave (Wacquant 1990). Older individuals may continue with depression physical activity volunteering longer than they proceed with loftier-impact volunteer activities (Miller et al. 1990). In terms of part exit theory and so, while people will probably quit roles equally the age, the context of the role and how committed individuals are to the function may decrease the likelihood of exiting the role.
Finally, having children betwixt the ages of 7 and 12 decreases the likelihood of role exit. Here, those immature children are probably involved in the function in some way. Many children beginning playing soccer between these ages. As such, many parents go involved in role by becoming a referee. In terms of office get out theory, having members who have immature children also involved in the role may prevent function exit.
The identity variables of rewards and costs as well equally social comparisons and reflected appraisals are mediating variables rather than variables that directly touch on function exit. Interestingly, the only cost that was significant was verbal abuse and it was opposite of that expected. Perhaps referees enter into the role agreement that a certain amount of abuse comes with the position. Therefore, many referees expect it. Similarly, with age and experience, referees could develop the ability to deal with the abuse. Since referees expect that abuse may occur, it does not touch on their perceptions of the role and subsequently does not affect role leave. If there are expectations of potential costs such as verbal corruption, the outcome that the cost has on role go out may be minimal.
Commitment has additive and mediating effects on function exit. The amount of training that a person receives is an investment in the role. Literature suggests that more training helps to further tie individuals to a role (Jamison 2003; Martin 2003).
Additional training takes time and financial resources. Just those who desire to continue with the role and potentially advance seek out actress training. Similarly, boosted training often involves coming into contact with others involved in the role. This contact creates relationships between individuals involved in the role who could potentially use each other as a means of support and encouragement (Ebaugh 1988). To seek out more grooming is to farther strengthen the tie betwixt the individual and the role, or in terms of identity theory, to strengthen the commitment that an individual has to the part.
But, then why does having a family unit member who is in the part have the opposite effect hypothesized? Having a family fellow member in the role indicates i's commitment to the role. However, the role one is committed to is equally a supporter of the family member's soccer player. If individuals are committed to supporting the role of the other person, they may exist less likely to be committed to ane of their own roles. These two roles are mutually exclusive; to do i means to reduce or abandon the other. Therefore, having family members in another office may take the fourth dimension and energy away from participating in another role; committing the person to the significant other doing their own role rather than to the roles that they participate in. Future research should consider the result that delivery has on the role exit process both directly and as a mediating gene. Role exit research should consider the office that mutually sectional roles play in determining whether or not a person will exit a role.
Finally, these findings provide support for the importance of identity centrality in explaining role exit simply not every bit a mediating variable. If the role is not important to the individual, then he or she is less likely to continue with the role. Hereafter research on identity theory should consider identity centrality as an boosted factor influencing the function exit procedure.
Time to come research should include that the importance of role fix factors and identity processes. Even though the framework explains a significant amount of variation in why referees exit a part (twenty%), other measures, not addressed here, may influence the role exit process. Examining how referees perceptions of the role and their identities associated with the role change over time may help better explain the role go out process. Also, a longitudinal study of individuals throughout the career of their function may provide insight into the role that irresolute identities play in the role leave process. All limitations crave refinement of the model, probably including some unmeasured variables while excluding others.
This model moves the theory of role exit towards a comprehensive model that takes into various factors affecting the role leave process. Focusing on role-set up factors and situating identity processes equally explanatory also every bit mediating factors, this enquiry suggests that including identity factors in a model of role exit may significantly increase the explanatory power of any office get out model. While recognizing that well-nigh roles are context specific, hereafter inquiry should keep to advance the model of role leave, focusing on office-set factors and identity processes that influence the model.
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